Construct framed walls using advanced framing details like using the minimum amount of wall studs permitted by code to reduce thermal bridging and allow more space for insulation.
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The fall protection plan must conform to the following provisions. 1926.502(k)(1)The fall protection plan shall be prepared by a qualified person and developed specifically for the site where the leading edge work, precast concrete work, or residential construction work is being performed and the plan must be maintained up to date. The city's fall also stood as a turning point in military history. Since ancient times, cities and castles had depended upon ramparts and walls to repel invaders. However, Constantinople's substantial fortifications were overcome with the use of gunpowder, specifically in the form of large cannons and bombards.
- Specify 24-inch on-center for 2x6 wall framing rather than 16-inch on-center 2x4 wall framing.
- Design for wall lengths and heights, window and door sizes, etc., on a 2-foot grid, wherever possible to reduce framing members in walls and to reduce lumber and materials waste.
See the Compliance Tab for related codes and standards requirements, and criteria to meet national programs such as DOE’s Zero Energy Ready Home program, ENERGY STAR Certified Homes, and Indoor airPLUS.
Adding more studs than necessary wastes lumber and reduces the wall’s thermal resistance because the lumber blocks cavity space that could be filled with insulation and because each stud represents a thermal bridge that can transfer heat between the interior and exterior of the building. Wood-framed houses have traditionally been built with 2x4 studs spaced 16-inches on-center. Research has shown exterior framed walls can be adequately supported by 2x6 studs spaced 24-inches on-center. This wider spacing reduces the number of studs in the wall, thus reducing thermal resistance and increase the amount of space available for insulation. Building walls of 2x6s 24-inch on-center has long been permitted in building codes in most jurisdictions, and is particularly appropriate for colder climates (IECC Climate Zones 5-8) where higher wall R-values are required (Baczek, Yost, and Finegan 2002; DOE 2002; Lstiburek 2010). In some jurisdictions, particularly in hurricane zones, 16-inch on-center is the maximum stud spacing allowed; check with local code officials.
This 2x6, 24-inch on-center stud spacing is one of many components of advanced wall framing that reduce costs and provide materials and energy savings. Techniques for installing 24-inch on-center exterior and interior wall framing and single top plates are described below. Other techniques are described in other resource guides: see Insulated Corners, which explains how to construct corners with 2 studs instead of 3 studs to permit more insulation, Insulated Headers for tips on how and when to build open and insulated headers over windows and doors, Minimal Framing at Doors/Windows for efficient framing around doors and windows, and Insulated Interior/Exterior Wall Intersections for ways to reduce framing and add insulation where interior walls intersect exterior walls.
In one study employing several advanced framing techniques, such as 2x6 24-inch on-center wall framing, 24-inch on-center floor joist and rafter spacing, 2x4 24-inch on-center interior framing, 2-stud corners, open and insulated headers, reduced studs around windows and doors, and single top plates, all of the measures combined contributed to energy savings of 13% over standard framing but this single measure alone - switching from 2x4 16-inch on-center to 2x6 24-inch on-center framing– accounted for energy savings of 11% (Lstiburek and Grin 2010). The energy savings is accounted for by two factors – the thicker wall enables wall insulation to be upgraded from R-13 to R-19 and less studs mean less thermal bridging.
In one study employing several advanced framing techniques, such as 2x6 24-inch on-center wall framing, 24-inch on-center floor joist and rafter spacing, 2x4 24-inch on-center interior framing, 2-stud corners, open and insulated headers, reduced studs around windows and doors, and single top plates, all of the measures combined contributed to energy savings of 13% over standard framing but this single measure alone - switching from 2x4 16-inch on-center to 2x6 24-inch on-center framing– accounted for energy savings of 11% (Lstiburek and Grin 2010). The energy savings is accounted for by two factors – the thicker wall enables wall insulation to be upgraded from R-13 to R-19 and less studs mean less thermal bridging.
Building scientists suggest that builders should consider the “whole-wall” R-value as opposed to the center-of-cavity or rated R-value of the insulation. In one study, a 2x4 16-inch on-center wall was insulated with batts labeled R-13, but researchers calculated the actual whole-wall insulation value of the wall at R-9.4 (or 72% of R-13) when the thermal conductivity of the framing, windows, and doors are taken into account. In the same simulation, researchers found that the calculated whole-wall R value of a 2x6 24-inch on-center wall insulated with R-19 batts, was R-15.2, or 80% of R-19 (Baczek, Yost, and Finegan 2002). While both walls had a lower whole-wall R-value than rated R-value, the 2x6, 24-inch on-center wall with R-19 performed closer to its rated R-value because the wall had less thermal bridging.
Stud spacing can also affect cost savings. In one study of a 2,910-square foot home, switching from 2x4 16-inch on-center framing to 2x6 24-inch on-center framing reduced board feet of lumber by 1,634 feet and cut costs by $171. When other advanced framing measures were added, like switching to single top plates, 24-inch spacing of interior walls, and open headers, lumber costs were reduced $1,117 (Baczek, Yost, and Finegan 2002).
Framing on a two-foot also saves money by reducing material waste. Most sheet goods (plywood, OSB, foam insulation) come in 4x8-foot sheets. When the entire home is designed on a 2-foot grid from roof rafters to wall framing to floor joists, sheet good and lumber waste are greatly reduced. Reducing the number of studs in the walls by one-third also reduces labor costs in terms of the time it takes to handle, cut, install, drill through, and attach to studs. Based on numerous field experiments, Building Science Corporation estimates savings of up to $1,000 per home in materials and labor are possible for production builders who use a combination of advanced framing techniques (Lstiburek and Grin 2010).
Advanced framing techniques should be specified in the framer’s contract. Detailed framing elevations should be prepared after confirming that these advanced framing techniques are permitted by code in the local jurisdiction. There is a cost associated with redrawing existing floor plans or providing framing details for new plans, but the cost per home is minimal if the plan will be used several times. Also, cost savings will be realized because the details will help gain building official approval, improve accuracy for materials purchasing, clarify instructions for the lead framer, assist in training subs, and greatly improve the chances that the specified measure will actually be implemented (Baczek, Yost, and Finegan 2002).
How to Construct Walls with Fewer Studs
- Design homes on a two-foot grid with 2x6 studs spaced 24-inches on-center. Align rafters, wall studs, and floor joists so that the load is transferred and adequately supported to allow installation of single top plates. Align windows and doors with this two-foot stud spacing to reduce the number of extra king studs needed. [See Minimal Framing at Doors/Windows.]
- Specify single top plates in framing elevations. For an 8-foot wall, don’t purchase standard precut 92.5-inch studs, purchase 8-foot (96-inch) studs and cut them to 94 inches (Lstiburek 2010).
- Connect top-plates using either a metal plate or a wood splice.
- For interior walls, specify 2x4 studs placed 24-inch on-center with single headers. Non-structural connectors can be installed for non-load-bearing interior walls.
Advanced framing details should be specified in the construction plans (i.e., framing elevations should be provided) and reviewed with framers. The construction supervisor should ensure that framing crews are knowledgeable of or trained in advanced framing techniques. The framing should be visually inspected by the site supervisor before electrical, plumbing, HVAC, and drywall are installed.
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National Rater Field Checklist
Thermal Enclosure System.
3. Reduced Thermal Bridging.
3.4.3e Minimum stud spacing of 16 in. o.c. for 2x4 framing in all Climate Zones and, in CZ 6-8, 24 in. o.c. for 2x6 framing.25
3. Reduced Thermal Bridging.
3.4.3e Minimum stud spacing of 16 in. o.c. for 2x4 framing in all Climate Zones and, in CZ 6-8, 24 in. o.c. for 2x6 framing.25
Footnote 25) In Climate Zones 6 - 8, a minimum stud spacing of 16 in. o.c. is permitted to be used with 2x6 framing if ≥ R-20.0 wall cavity insulation is achieved. However, all 2x6 framing with stud spacing of 16 in. o.c. in Climate Zones 6 - 8 shall have ≥ R-20.0 wall cavity insulation installed regardless of any framing plan or alternative equivalent total UA calculation.
Compliance
The Compliance tab contains both program and code information. Code language is excerpted and summarized below. For exact code language, refer to the applicable code, which may require purchase from the publisher. While we continually update our database, links may have changed since posting. Please contact our webmaster if you find broken links.
National Rater Field Checklist
Thermal Enclosure System.
3. Reduced Thermal Bridging.
3.4.3e Minimum stud spacing of 16 in. o.c. for 2x4 framing in all Climate Zones and, in CZ 6-8, 24 in. o.c. for 2x6 framing.25
3. Reduced Thermal Bridging.
3.4.3e Minimum stud spacing of 16 in. o.c. for 2x4 framing in all Climate Zones and, in CZ 6-8, 24 in. o.c. for 2x6 framing.25
Footnote 25) In Climate Zones 6 - 8, a minimum stud spacing of 16 in. o.c. is permitted to be used with 2x6 framing if ≥ R-20.0 wall cavity insulation is achieved. However, all 2x6 framing with stud spacing of 16 in. o.c. in Climate Zones 6 - 8 shall have ≥ R-20.0 wall cavity insulation installed regardless of any framing plan or alternative equivalent total UA calculation.
All Walls Must Fall
Please see the ENERGY STAR Certified Homes Implementation Timeline for the program version and revision currently applicable in in your state.
Exhibit 1 Mandatory Requirements.
Exhibit 1, Item 1) Certified under the ENERGY STAR Qualified Homes Program or the ENERGY STAR Multifamily New Construction Program.
Exhibit 1, Item 1) Certified under the ENERGY STAR Qualified Homes Program or the ENERGY STAR Multifamily New Construction Program.
2009, 2012, 2015, and 2018 International Energy Conservation Code (IECC)
This topic is not specifically addressed in the IECC.
2009, 2012, 2015, and 2018 International Residential Code (IRC)
This topic is not specifically addressed in the IRC.
More Info.
Access to some references may require purchase from the publisher. While we continually update our database, links may have changed since posting. Please contact our webmaster if you find broken links.
Guide describing details that serve as a visual reference for each of the line items in the Thermal Enclosure System Rater Checklist.
On November 17, 2016, OSHA issued a final rule on Walking-Working Surfaces and Personal Fall Protection Systems to protect workers in general industry from falls. Fall hazards from heights and on working surfaces are one of the leading causes of serious workplace injuries and deaths, and the new rule more closely aligns general industry requirements with those in construction.
In the works since 1990, the new rule updates and clarifies the walking-working surface standards and adds clear training and inspection requirements. The final rule will allow employers to select a fall protection system that works best for them from a range of accepted options that OSHA has permitted in construction since 1994, including:
- Guardrail Systems
- Safety Net Systems
- Personal Fall Arrest Systems
- Positioning Systems
- Travel Restraint Systems
- Ladder Safety Systems
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One of the most significant changes will be to fixed and portable ladders and the safety requirements surrounding them. Cages and wells will no longer be acceptable forms of fall protection on fixed ladders higher than 24 feet, although employers will have a generous timeframe – up to 20 years in some cases – to phase in ladder safety systems or personal fall arrest systems (PFAS).
The rule will be effective on Jan. 17, 2017, and will affect approximately 112 million workers at seven million worksites. OSHA estimates the final standard will prevent 29 fatalities and more than 5,842 lost-workday injuries annually.
Alignment With Construction Standards
Because many employers perform activities that fall under both general industry and construction standards, the new final rule eases compliance by bringing many of the general industry standards in line with current construction standards.
More specifically, construction standards (29 CFR part 1926) are referred to in the following parts of the new Walking-Working Surfaces standard (29 CFR part 1910, subpart D):
- 27(a) Scaffolds – Scaffolds used in general industry must meet the requirements in construction 29 CFR part 1926, subpart L (Scaffolds).
- 28(b)(1)(ii) Unprotected sides and edges – When the employer can demonstrate that it is not feasible or creates a greater hazard to use guardrail, safety net, or personal fall protection systems on residential roofs, the employer must develop and implement a fall protection plan that meets the requirements of construction 29 CFR 1926.502(k) and training that meets the requirements of 29 CFR 1926.503(a) and (c).
- 28(b)(12) Scaffolds and rope descent systems – The employer must ensure: (i) Each employee on a scaffold is protected from falling in accordance 29 CFR part 1926, subpart L; and (ii) Each employee using a rope descent system 4 feet (1.2 m) or more above a lower level is protected from falling by a personal fall arrest system.
- 29(b) Guardrail systems Note to paragraph (b) of this section: The criteria and practices requirement for guardrail systems on scaffolds are contained in 29 CFR part 1926, subpart L.
- 29(c) Safety net systems – The employer must ensure each safety net system meets the requirements in 29 CFR part 1926, subpart M.
What You Need To Know
The following subparts of 29 CFR part 1910 will be affected by this final rule:
Subpart D – Walking-Working Surfaces (see table below):
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Subpart I – Personal Protective Equipment:
- Addition of 1910.140 Personal Fall Protection Systems.
- Addition of 1910 Subpart I App C – Non-Mandatory Guidelines for Personal Fall Protection Systems
- Addition of 1910 Subpart I App D – Non-Mandatory Guidelines for Test Methods and Procedures for Personal Fall Protection Systems
Amendments to subparts for reference to subparts D and I only:
- 1910 Subpart N – Materials Handling and Storage
- Subpart R – Special Industries
Important Dates To Remember
The new final rule goes into effect on January 12, 2017; after which, employers will need to complete training, installation, inspection and certification by the following dates:
May 17, 2017
Training workers on fall and equipment hazards
1910.30(a) and (b)
November 20, 2017
Inspection and certification of permanent building anchorages for rope decent systems
1910.27(b)(1)
November 19, 2018
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Installation of fall protection (personal fall arrest systems, ladder safety systems, cages, wells) on existing fixed ladders (over 24 feet) that do not have any fall protection
1910.28(b)(9)(i)(A)
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Installation of personal fall arrest systems or ladder safety system on all new fixed ladders (over 24 feet) and replacement ladders/ladder sections
1910.28(b)(9)(i)(B)
November 18, 2036
Installation of ladder safety systems or personal fall arrest systems on all fixed ladders (over 24 feet)
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1910.28(b)(9)(i)(D)
Compliance Assistance Materials
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Below are some convenient links to information directly from OSHA regarding the new final rule on Walking-Working Surfaces and Fall Protection Standards:
Optimum Safety Management Can Help You Get Compliant
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If you’re not sure how the new final rule applies to you, Optimum Safety Management can help. As the walking-working surfaces and fall protection standards for general industry have not been updated for some time, it’s understandable that many employers are going to require clarification and assistance with their compliance responsibilities.
Contact Optimum Safety Management at 630-759-9908 for a free consultation and information about how we can help you evaluate, update and implement a new safety management plan to meet the requirements of the new final rule.